a. High blood pressure
Narrowed arteries that are less elastic make it more difficult for blood to travel efficiently throughout your body. Consequently reducing cardiac output (American Heart Association, 2022).
b. Massive bleeding
During hemorrhagic shock or massive bleeding, the decrease in the volume of blood causes a fall in central venous pressure and cardiac filling, leading to reduced cardiac output (Klabunde, 2021).
c. the drug dopamine
Dopamine is recognized to promote positive chronotropic and inotropic effects (Cunha, 2022), as well as reducing splanchnic perfusion and redistributing blood flow locally (Jakob, et al, n.d.), consequently leading to an increased heart rate and cardiac output.
d. Running a sprint
Sprinting or exercising in general leads to an increase in heart rate or cardiac output due to the increased demand for oxygen of the muscles during work or exercise.
e. Hyperthyroidism with increased secretion of thyroid hormones
Hyperthyroidism affects cardiovascular hemodynamics, leading to an increase in cardiac output, as well as high-output heart failure (Osuna, et al., n.d.).
f. Massive myocardial infarction (cardiac tissue death)
Massive myocardial infarction, most commonly known as a heart attack, causes a decline in cardiac output due to the impairment of global cardiac functions, which may also lead to pulmonary congestion and edema (Klabunde, 2022).
g. Hypothermia
Hypothermia, a reduction in body temperature significantly affects the cardiac output by reflex adrenergic vasoconstriction (noradrenalin) of the skin, causing a decrease in the cardiac output’s core temperature to 34 degrees Celsius (Deussen, 2007).
h. Emotional distress
During emotional distress, hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline are released in order to aid the body in dealing with stress. These result in an increase in heart rate, and narrowing of blood vessels, causing an increase in cardiac output, as well as blood pressure (Wojcik, Kang, n.d.).
American Heart Association. (2022). How High Blood Pressure Can Lead to Heart Failure. Www.heart.org. https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/high-blood-pressure/health-threats-from-high-blood-pressure/how-high-blood-pressure-can-lead-to-heart-failure#:~:text=High%20blood%20pressure%20adds%20to
Cunha, J. (2022). Dopamine (Dopamine Hydrochloride): Uses, Dosage, Side Effects, Interactions, Warning. RxList. https://www.rxlist.com/dopamine-drug.htm
Deussen, A. (2007). Hyperthermia and hypothermia. Effects on the cardiovascular system. Der Anaesthesist, 56(9), 907–911. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00101-007-1219-4
Healthwise Staff. (2020, August 31). Cardiac Output. Myhealth.alberta.ca. https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Health/Pages/conditions.aspx?hwid=tx4080abc#:~:text=During%20exercise%2C%20your%20body%20may
Jakob, S. M., Ruokonen, E., & Takala, J. (2002). Effects of dopamine on systemic and regional blood flow and metabolism in septic and cardiac surgery patients. Shock (Augusta, Ga.), 18(1), 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1097/00024382-200207000-00002
Klabunde, R. (2021). CV Physiology | Hemorrhagic Shock. Www.cvphysiology.com. https://www.cvphysiology.com/Blood%20Pressure/BP031#:~:text=The%20reduction%20in%20blood%20volume
Klabunde, R. (2022). CV Pharmacology |. Www.cvpharmacology.com. https://www.cvpharmacology.com/clinical%20topics/myocardial%20infarction#:~:text=Effects%20of%20Acute%20Myocardial%20Infarction&text=Loss%20of%20viable%20myocardium%20impairs
Osuna, P. M., Udovcic, M., & Sharma, M. D. (2017). Hyperthyroidism and the Heart. Methodist DeBakey Cardiovascular Journal, 13(2), 60–63. https://doi.org/10.14797/mdcj-13-2-60
Wojcik, S., & Kang, S. (n.d.). Emotions and Heart Health - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center. Www.urmc.rochester.edu. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=134&ContentID=165#:~:text=Stress%20and%20your%20heart&text=These%20hormones%20include%20cortisol%20and