Activity 2
ORGAN-SYSTEM LEVEL
By GEORGETTE E. ZALDIVAR
1. What are the organs that constitute each of the organ-systems above?
- INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM: hair, skin, exocrine glands (sweat and oil glands), fingernails, and toenails
- SKELETAL SYSTEM: bone, cartilage, tendons, joints, and ligaments
- MUSCULAR SYSTEM: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, tendons, and soft tissues
- NERVOUS SYSTEM: brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special sense organs (e.g., eyes and ears)
- ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: hormone-producing glands, such as the pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes
- CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)
- LYMPHATIC SYSTEM: lymphatic fluids, lymphatic vessels (thoracic duct); spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils (pharyngeal tonsil, palatine tonsil, lingual tonsil); and cells that carry out immune responses (B cells, T cells, etc.)
- RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: lungs, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), bronchial tubes, nasal cavity, and oral cavity
- DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus (food tube), stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus, and accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas)
- URINARY SYSTEM: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
- REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: gonads (testes in males; ovaries in females) and associated organs (uterine or fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands for females; epididymis, ductus or vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis for males)
2. Which organ systems function to regulate acid-base balance in the fluid?
Because enzyme function is pH dependent, maintaining acid-base balance, which is the balance between input and output of hydrogen ions (H+) (Janes, 2022), is critical for the proper functioning of biological processes (Caballero, 2013). The regulation of the acid-base balance in the fluid requires the cooperation of three organ systems: the cardiovascular, respiratory, and urinary systems (Tortora & Derrickson, 2014).
First, the cardiovascular system makes use of blood circulation to rid the body of the carbon dioxide (CO2) component in the blood.
The respiratory system adjusts the pH level with the use of carbon dioxide (CO2), which is impelled into the environment upon expiration. Because carbonic acid is formed in the body when carbon dioxide combines with water, the amount of carbon dioxide discharged can cause pH to increase or decrease (Hopkins, Sanvictores, & Sharma, 2021).
Lastly, the urinary system influences the pH level via the reabsorption of bicarbonate (HCO3-) and excretion of fixed acids. Glomeruli are blood vessels that transport substances found in blood to the renal tubules, in which some are filtered out while some are reabsorbed into the blood and recycled. This holds true for hydrogen ions (H+), as well as bicarbonate (HCO3-). If bicarbonate (HCO3-) is reabsorbed, the pH becomes more alkaline. When bicarbonate (HCO3-) is not reabsorbed, the pH becomes more acidic (Hopkins, Sanvictores, & Sharma, 2021).
REFERENCES:
Caballero, B. (2013). Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition 3rd ed. Academic Press.
Hopkins, E., Sanvictores, T., & Sharma, S. (2021). Physiology, Acid Base Balance. Retrieved from National Center for Biotechnology Information: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507807/
Janes, S. M. (2022). Encyclopedia of Respiratory Medicine 2nd ed. London: Academic Press.
Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2014). 1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Defined. In G. J. Tortora, & B. Derrickson, Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (pp. 4-7). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.